Early human fossils found in South African cave system

Kim Eckart

News and Information

This skull, part of a skeleton that scientists have named Neo, was found in the Lesedi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system in South Africa.John Hawks, the University of Wisconsin

 

An international team of scientists, including one from the University of Washington, has announced the discovery of additional remains of a new human species, Homo naledi, in a series of caves northwest of Johannesburg, South Africa.

The find includes the remains of two adults and a child in the Lesedi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system, expanding the fossil record originally reported from a different chamber of the cave in 2015.

Details of the latest discovery are published May 9 in two papers in eLife, along with another paper from the research team that pinpoints an age range of the original Rising Star fossils, which comprised 15 different individuals. Those remains of a primitive, small-brained human ancestor that scientists dubbed Homo naledi were found in Rising Star’s Dinaledi Chamber and are believed to be between 236,000 and 335,000 years old. This means that Homo naledi may have coexisted, for a period of time, with Homo sapiens, the species of modern humans.

“We can no longer assume that we know which species made tools, or even assume that it was modern humans that were the innovators of some of these critical technological and behavioral breakthroughs in the archaeological record of Africa,” said Professor Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, who assembled the team that first explored the Rising Star system in 2013 and is an author on the latest papers. “If there is one other species out there that shared the world with ‘modern humans’ in Africa, it is very likely there are others. We just need to find them.”

The research involved 52 scientists from nearly three dozen institutions, led by the University of the Witwatersrand, James Cook University in Australia and the University of Wisconsin, Madison. The University of Washington’s Elen Feuerriegel, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Anthropology, was one of the members of the team that excavated both Dinaledi and Lesedi.

Researchers haven’t yet been able to date the fossils from the Lesedi Chamber, which include one of the most complete skeletons of an early human found to date. The excavation of that chamber, researchers believe, provides further evidence that this early human species deliberately disposed of its dead in these remote, hard-to-reach caves.

University of Washington postdoctoral researcher Elen Feuerriegel scrapes away sediment inside the Lesedi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system.Elen Feuerriegel

That hypothesis generated criticism when the Dinaledi discovery was first reported, with some scientists pointing to other potential causes and timelines for the deposition of the bones. The Rising Star team maintains that the lack of animal remains found at the site, and the absence of injury to or erosion of the human fossils, rules out predatory or natural causes of accumulation.

The Lesedi fossils also shed light on the physical capabilities of Homo naledi, said Feuerriegel. The finds so far indicate a species that walked upright and used its hands for complex grasping — like Homo sapiens — but also had an upper limb structure that was built for climbing, like more primitive humans.

“What we’re seeing is the importance of compromise in our own genus,” said Feuerriegel. “The fact that Homo naledihas a similar hand and wrist to Homo sapiens, but a brain one-third the size of ours, shows that they may not have needed as much brainpower to do complex things. The process of human evolution is more complicated than we thought.”

Further excavation of the cave system is planned, an undertaking that requires excavators who can squeeze through passages as narrow as 7 ½ inches and spend hours 100 feet underground. The original excavation team assembled for the Dinaledi Chamber in 2013 was made up of Feuerriegel and five other women, all of whom had paleoanthropology or archaeology backgrounds — and the caving skills critical to such an endeavor. Since then Feuerriegel, a caver who studies the upper limb structures of early humans, and other members of the team have returned for excavation of the Lesedi Chamber.

The new Lesedi fossils include the skull of an adult male that is more complete than one found in Dinaledi. The team has named the Lesedi skeleton Neo, and consider it more complete, too, than that of Lucy, the remains of an earlier species known as Australopithecus afarensis that were found in Ethiopia in 1974.

The specimens from Lesedi are similar to those from Dinaledi and are undoubtedly from the same species, said John Hawks, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison and an author on all three papers. Because determining the age of the Lesedi fossils could cause some damage to the Lesedi remains, researchers expect to begin that process after more fossils are collected. But team members believe that, based on the appearance and condition of the Lesedi fossils, that they fall within the same general time period as those of Dinaledi.

To establish an age of the Dinaledi fossils, scientists used a combination of techniques for both the bones and the surrounding sediments, including uranium series and electron spin resonance dating to examine teeth. Since other Australopithecus fossils have been found not far from the Rising Star Cave system, researchers had initially expected the Dinaledi fossils to be closer in age to those older ancestors — not from as recently as 236,000 to 335,000 years ago.

The age indicates that Homo naledi may have survived for as long as 2 million years alongside other species of early humans in Africa. In the period in which Homo naledi is believed to have lived, known as the Middle Pleistocene, it was previously thought that only Homo sapiens existed in Africa. That time is also characterized by the rise of what is considered “modern” human behavior in southern Africa, such as the use of complex tools and burial of the dead.

The Lesedi fossils will join those from the original Rising Star Cave expedition in a public display beginning May 25 at the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site near Johannesburg.

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This was adapted from a release from the University of Witwatersrand. For more information on the UW’s involvement in this discovery, contact Feuerriegel at 206-388-6997 or efeuer@uw.edu.

 

 

 

This diagram shows the narrow twists and openings of the Lesedi Chamber, along with labels where some remains were found.

Source: http://www.washington.edu/news/2017/05/09/early-human-fossils-found-in-south-african-cave-system/

During partition why didn't Sikhs support Pakistan over India? by Ajay Kumar

Do you know what happened to the Kingdom of Amarkot? A Hindu majority region opted for Pakistan. Pakistan which was created in the name of Islam for Muslims.

Footprints: Once upon a time in Umerkot

Pakistan was only for Muslims & India was for the rest, that included everyone who was not a Muslim & also for those Muslims who did not want to be a part of a fundamentalist Islamic country.

Bollywood Playback singer - Mohd Rafi’s family returned back from Pakistan as they understood that a fundamentalist Pakistan would discourage anything that was against its interpretation of Islam.

In the 1970’s, main backers of Pakistan, the Ahmediyya Muslims too were declared as non-Muslims. So imagine the condition of non-Muslims.

In the 1971, Bangla speaking East Pakistan separated from West Pakistan, as West Pakistan considered a non-Urdu speaking Bengalis, lesser Muslims.

So, the leaders of the Sikh community clearly understood that their future lies in a India of composite culture than in a Islamic Pakistan.

Just as Jainism & Buddhism are results of intellectual reform movement in Hinduism in ancient era, similarly Sikhism is a result of reform & Bhakti movement in medieval era. Culturally Sikhism is an off-shoot of Hinduism.

Islam has nothing much in common with Sikhism. Moreover many Sikh Gurus lost their life in the hands of Muslim invaders, who are represented by Pakistan.

Sorry for being politically incorrect, but as the saying goes, one Muslim guy can stay with 10 Hindus / Sikhs, but one Hindu/Sikh can not live with 10 Muslims.

Edit 1: As per the law in Pakistan -

Only a Muslim can be appointed as President.Only a Muslim can be appointed as Army Chief (service Chief), this was one of the reasons for declaring Ahmediyyas, as non-Muslims, to disqualify high ranking Ahmeddiya Muslim Military officers from becoming Service Chiefs. The other reason was Saudi pressure.Only a Muslim can be appointed as District Collector / DM / DC.

In Pakistani Punjab, Muslim Punjabis are a majority, whereas in India, Sikh Punjabis outnumber Hindu Punjabis. Therefore if Sikhs had opted for Pakistan, they would have remained a minority in Pakistani Punjab, whereas in Indian Punjab, they are the majority.

Edit 2: Sikhism & Punjabi in Gurumukhi are inseparable. Punjabi in Gurumukhi is the language of Guru Granth Sahib. In Indian Punjab, Punjabi in Gurumukhi is the official language of Punjab. Punjabi is the first language of education. Punjabi in Gurumukhi is a recognised language of India.

In Pakistani Punjab - Teaching of Punjabi is not encouraged in school or college. It is against the law to speak Punjabi inside Punjab (Pak) state assembly. Whatever little Punjabi survives in Pakistan is as mother tongue (mother speaking to her children). Rest is due to unofficial promotion of Punjabi in shahmukhi (persian script).

Perhaps after a century, Punjabi will survive as a language only in India.

Edit 3: Footprints: Once upon a time in Umerkot

Edit4: For those with doubts -

Who is a Hindu? -

People living on the banks of river Indus (Sindu) & East of river Indus, are collectively called Hindustani, Hindu or Hindi.These people follow a culture, faith, tradition, rituals, costumes, festivals etc which were passed on to them by preceeding generation from the time, when their ancestors were gatherers & hunters. People worshipped snakes, spirits, ghosts, & lord of ghost (Bhootnath).Later agriculture lead to stable village life. People worshipped animal, plants, trees & lord of animal & tree (Pashupati). People worshipped special stones (Vaishnodevi etc). Black magicians were the priest & very popular.Much later, due to excess of food grains, when everyone was not required to be engaged in agriculture or allied trade, some people took part in other work, such as art, dance, teaching etc.Much later, basic literary practices led to higher education, free thinking & knowledge. People worshipped the shedding of ignorance & gaining of wisdom. People worshipped Ganesha.Much later, some of those educated knowledgable guys, questioned the beliefs in God / supertitions / rituals. Much later, this challenge & questioning led to Jainism & Vedas.Much later Vedas were challenged, which led to Srimad Bhagvatgita & later Buddhism.Much later, this led to stories & dance dramas, some inspired by real events & rest based on fiction. Much later, this led to mythological characters being worshipped as deities. People worshipped Rama & Krishna.Much later, love towards certain deities & god, led to Bhakti. During bhakti movement, Sikhism emerged, merging Hinduism with Sufism.

Those who do not consider the primitive / ancient culture, history & rituals of Hindustan as their own, are Non-Hindus. These non-believers include, but not limited to, the present generations of Jains, Buddhist, Muslims, Jews, Christians, Parsis & Sikhs.

Dark part of Indian history that gets no attention in schools or history textbooks

The genocide suffered by the Hindus and Sikhs of India at the hands of Arab, Turkish, Mughal and Afghan occupying forces for a period of 800 years is as yet formally unrecognised even within India. Professor K.S. Lal estimates that the Hindu population in India decreased by 80 million between 1000 AD and 1525 AD, an extermination unparalleled in World history. This slaughter of millions of people occurred over regular periods during many centuries of Arab, Afghan, Turkish and Mughal rule in India.

Sample what historians have written on the topic:

Dr. Koenraad Elst in his article “Was There an Islamic Genocide of Hindus?” states:“There is no official estimate of the total death toll of Hindus at the hands of Islam. A first glance at important testimonies by Muslim chroniclers suggests that, over 13 centuries and a territory as vast as the Subcontinent, Muslim Holy Warriors easily killed more Hindus than the 6 million of the Holocaust.

Will Durant argued in his book “The Story of Civilisation: Our Oriental Heritage”:“The Mohammedan conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. The Islamic historians and scholars have recorded with great glee and pride the slaughters of Hindus, forced conversions, abduction of Hindu women and children to slave markets and the destruction of temples carried out by the warriors of Islam during 800 AD to 1700 AD. Millions of Hindus were converted to Islam by sword during this period.”Francois Gautier in his book ‘Rewriting Indian History’ (1996) wrote:“The massacres perpetuated by Muslims in India are unparalleled in history, bigger than the Holocaust of the Jews by the Nazis; or the massacre of the Armenians by the Turks; more extensive even than the slaughter of the South American native populations by the invading Spanish and Portuguese.”Writer Fernand Braudel wrote in A History of Civilisations (1995), that“Islamic rule in India as a "colonial experiment" was "extremely violent", and "the Muslims could not rule the country except by systematic terror. Cruelty was the norm – burnings, summary executions, crucifixions or impalements, inventive tortures. Hindu temples were destroyed to make way for mosques. On occasion there were forced conversions. If ever there were an uprising, it was instantly and savagely repressed: houses were burned, the countryside was laid waste, men were slaughtered and women were taken as slaves."Alain Danielou in his book, Histoire de l' Inde writes:"From the time Muslims started arriving, around 632 AD, the history of India becomes a long, monotonous series of murders, massacres, spoliations, and destructions. It is, as usual, in the name of 'a holy war' of their faith, of their sole God, that the barbarians have destroyed civilizations, wiped out entire races."Irfan Husain in his article “Demons from the Past” observes:“While historical events should be judged in the context of their times, it cannot be denied that even in that bloody period of history, no mercy was shown to the Hindus unfortunate enough to be in the path of either the Arab conquerors of Sindh and south Punjab, or the Central Asians who swept in from Afghanistan…The Muslim heroes who figure larger than life in our history books committed some dreadful crimes. Mahmud of Ghazni, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, Balban, Mohammed bin Qasim, and Sultan Mohammad Tughlak, all have blood-stained hands that the passage of years has not cleansed..Seen through Hindu eyes, the Muslim invasion of their homeland was an unmitigated disaster. Their temples were razed, their idols smashed, their women raped, their men killed or taken slaves. When Mahmud of Ghazni entered Somnath on one of his annual raids, he slaughtered all 50,000 inhabitants. Aibak killed and enslaved hundreds of thousands. The list of horrors is long and painful. These conquerors justified their deeds by claiming it was their religious duty to smite non-believers. Cloaking themselves in the banner of Islam, they claimed they were fighting for their faith when, in reality, they were indulging in straightforward slaughter and pillage…”

The historians and biographers of the invading armies and subsequent rulers of India have left quite detailed records of the atrocities they committed in their day-to-day encounters with India’s Hindus. A sample of contemporary eyewitness accounts of the invaders and rulers, during the Indian conquests.

Ferishtha lists several occasions when the Bahmani sultans in central India (1347-1528) killed a hundred thousand Hindus, which they set as a minimum goal whenever they felt like punishing the Hindus; and they were only a third-rank provincial dynasty.The Afghan ruler Mahmud al-Ghazni invaded India no less than seventeen times between 1001 – 1026 AD. The book ‘Tarikh-i-Yamini’ – written by his secretary documents several episodes of his bloody military campaigns : “The blood of the infidels flowed so copiously [at the Indian city of Thanesar] that the stream was discoloured, notwithstanding its purity, and people were unable to drink it…the infidels deserted the fort and tried to cross the foaming river…but many of them were slain, taken or drowned… Nearly fifty thousand men were killed.”In the contemporary record – ‘ Taj-ul-Ma’asir’ by Hassn Nizam-i-Naishapuri, it is stated that when Qutb-ul- Din Aibak (of Turko – Afghan origin and the First Sultan of Delhi 1194-1210 AD) conquered Meerat, he demolished all the Hindu temples of the city and erected mosques on their sites. In the city of Aligarh, he converted Hindu inhabitants to Islam by the sword and beheaded all those who adhered to their own religion.

The Persian historian Wassaf writes in his book ‘Tazjiyat-ul-Amsar wa Tajriyat ul Asar’ that when the Alaul-Din Khilji (An Afghan of Turkish origin and second ruler of the Khilji Dynasty in India 1295-1316 AD) captured the city of Kambayat at the head of the gulf of Cambay, he killed the adult male Hindu inhabitants for the glory of Islam, set flowing rivers of blood, sent the women of the country with all their gold, silver, and jewels, to his own home, and made about twentv thousand Hindu maidens his private slaves.The Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked India in 1757 AD and made his way to the holy Hindu city of Mathura, the Bethlehem of the Hindus and birthplace ofKrishna. The atrocities that followed are recorded in the contemporary chronicle called : 'Tarikh-I-Alamgiri' :"Abdali's soldiers would be paid 5 Rupees (a sizeable amount at the time) for every enemy head brought in. Every horseman had loaded up all his horses with the plundered property, and atop of it rode the girl-captives and the slaves. The severed heads were tied up in rugs like bundles of grain and placed on the heads of the captives...Then the heads were stuck upon lances and taken to the gate of the chief minister for payment."It was an extraordinary display! Daily did this manner of slaughter and plundering proceed. And at night the shrieks of the women captives who were being raped, deafened the ears of the people...All those heads that had been cut off were built into pillars, and the captive men upon whose heads those bloody bundles had been brought in, were made to grind corn, and then their heads too were cut off. These things went on all the way to the city of Agra, nor was any part of the country spared".

Source:http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/irin/genocide.html

https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/biggest-holocaust-world-historywhitewashed-history

Persecution of Hindus

Who are the Rothschilds, and why are they so important? by Devesh

The Rothschild dynasty is believed to be the wealthiest family in the history of the world. According to some estimates, the Rothschild family controls assets worth more than $350 billion when each of their personal fortunes is combined.

The Rothschild empire had its genesis during the 1760s when a court Jew by the name of Mayer Amschel Rothschild founded a banking business in his native country, Germany. As a court Jew, Rothschild managed finances for the German Royals in exchange for certain social privileges such as living at court or outside of the Jewish ghettos. Over time and with the help of Mayer Rothschild's five sons, the family business expanded throughout several European countries. During 1815 and 1914, the Rothschilds controlled the world’s largest bank. Fast forward to more than two centuries, the Rothschild name is still synonymous with wealth and influence. In a 2005 issue of Forbesmagazine, Mayer Rothschild ranked seventh on a list of the twenty most influential businessmen of all time. Here is an overview of how the Rothschilds became the world’s wealthiest family.

Early Life and Career of Mayer Rothschild

The Rothschild’s story of power and riches began with the humble beginnings of its founder, Mayer Rothschild. Born in 1744, Mayer Rothschild was raised in a Jewish ghetto in Frankfurt, Germany. During that era, Jews were legally required to live in small communities that were distant from Christians. They were also not allowed to leave their villages on Christian holidays, Sundays or at night.

As a child, Rothschild lived in a full house with about 30 other family members. Rothschild learned about the business world at an early age—his father, Amschel Moses Rothschild, traded coins, silk and other commodities for a living. One of Amschel Rothschild's clients was the Prince of Hesse.

Mayer Rothschild became an orphan at the age of 12 following the death of his mother. His father had died from smallpox the year before. Before their passing, Rothschild’s parents wanted their son to study Jewish teaching to become a Rabbi. However, he decided to take on an apprenticeship with a banking firm in Hanover, Germany shortly after turning thirteen. The firm was operated by Court Jews who furnished credit to European royalty. During his time there, Rothschild learned the ins and outs of banking and foreign trade. (See also, The 5 Most Influential Bankers Of All Time.)

Rothschild Banking Empire is Formed

Rothschild returned to his hometown, Frankfurt, when he turned 19-years-old. He along with his brothers continued the commodities and money trading business that their father started. Rothschild also continued his career as a court Jew. By 1769, Rothschild was given the title "Crown Agent" which helped to further establish him as a credible Court Jew among German royalty. He provided banking services to a number of nobles in Europe including Crown Prince Wilhelm of Hesse, who later became the continent's richest man. In 1770, Rothschild married the daughter of another Court Jew. The dowry received from the marriage helped to increase Rothschild's wealth. The couple had ten children–five sons and five daughters. All of their sons later contributed to expanding the Rothschild banking empire.

Expanding and Controlling the Rothschild Footprint

The Rothschild banking empire benefited tremendously from the French Revolution. During the war, the Austrian army contracted Rothschild to supply it with a range of items including wheat, uniforms, horses, and equipment. He also facilitated monetary transactions for Hessian mercenaries. Around that time, Rothschild sent his five sons to live in the capital cities of various European countries. His goal was to have each of his children establish a banking business in Frankfurt, Naples, Vienna, Paris, and London.

In 1798 Mayer Rothschild's oldest son, Nathan Rothschild moved to London, England. There he founded a textile jobbing business with £20,000 of working capital, which in today's terms is equivalent to £1.9 million. Nathan Rothschild later founded a bank which became N M Rothschild & Sons Ltd. The firm is the country's seventh oldest bank in continuous operation. Although privately held and still controlled by the Rothschild family, N M Rothschild & Sons Ltd. reported a net profit of £34 million at the end of 2014. Like the other Rothschild banks that were subsequently set up throughout Europe, N M Rothschild & Sons furnished credit to the government during times of war and crisis. During Napoleon's French Revolution, N M Rothschild & Sons managed and financed various subsidies that the British government sent to its different allies.

Before he died, Mayer Rothschild left strict rules for his descendants on how they should handle the family's finances. For example, Rothschild wanted to keep the fortune within the family and as such encouraged the arrangement of marriages among Rothschild relatives. According to an article published in the August 2003 issue of Discover magazine entitled "Go Ahead, Kiss Your Cousin", writer, Richar Conniff states, "Mayer Amschel Rothschild, founder of the banking family arranged his affairs so that cousin marriages among his descendants were inevitable. His will barred female descendants from any direct inheritance. Without an inheritance, female Rothschilds had few possible marriage partners of the same religion and suitable economic and social stature—except other Rothschilds. Rothschild brides bound the family together. Four of Mayer's granddaughters married grandsons, and one married her uncle. These were hardly people whose mate choice was limited by the distance they could walk on their day off."

The Rothschild Family in the 21st Century

It is estimated that the Rothschild family controls more than $350 billion worth of assets. The family wealth has been divided among many descendants throughout the years. There are a few Rothschild owned financial institutions still operating in Europe including N M Rothschild & Sons Ltd, in the United Kingdom, and Edmond de Rothschild Group, in Switzerland. The family also owns more than a dozen wineries in North America, Europe, South America, South Africa and Australia. (See also, 5 Of The World's Oldest Companies.)

The Bottom Line

With a combined fortune worth hundreds of billions of dollars, the Rothschilds are the wealthiest family to have ever lived. The origin of the family’s massive fortune comes from a German banking business that was established during the 18th century by Mayer Amschel Rothschild. By the 19th century, the business had expanded to England, France, Austria and Italy with one of Mayer Rothschild’s five sons overseeing operations in each country. For more than two centuries, the Rothschild wealth has slowly declined because it has been divided and passed down to hundreds of heirs. With that said, the Rothschild empire is still substantial. Today, it spans across a number of diverse industries including financial services, real estate, mining, energy and even charitable work.

What are some things every Indian should know about Indian history?

This part has been taken from the blog: The greatest Heist in Indian history..How Indian History was changed and we didn’t even notice. Part 1:The lost eon 6th Century B.C to 1174 A.D .Do visit it for the complete article.

The lost eon 6th Century B.C to 1174 A.D
"This is India’s history from an average  Indian 10th grader's point of view

1. Harappans were the first people in India, and they had a fetish for building abnormally large bath-tubs.
2. Their asses were then kicked by the some unknown invading Aryans.
3. Somewhere down the line, Alexander and his badass gang of Greeks came calling.
4. Chandragupta Maurya with his adviser Chanakya, did some awesome 420giri to take over from the Greeks.
5. They were then  succeeded by the Guptas who brought the ‘Golden Age’ with them.
6. Mahmud of Ghazni, however, looted all that gold. He needed a sum total of 17 visits to complete his gold quest.
7. Mohammad Ghauri followed him with similar intentions, but decided to avoid the trouble and simply stay back. And then he died.
8. He left his slave Qutub-ud-din Aibak to do all the ruling. His most significant achievement was to build one pointless tower.
9. Then came a Muslim queen, underlining our credentials in female liberation.
10. It was then the turn of Tughlaq and his gang of idiots. They moved national capitals around because they hated the weather.
11. From somewhere, Babar, a descendant of a lame, one eyed king from Central Asia landed in India.
12. He and his sons, calling themselves Mughals,  ruled India for the next 350 years.
13. Their party came to an end when Englishmen arrived, redcoats and all, and took a strong fancy to our country.

Photographs: What are some rare photographs of Indian history?

1. This image of Tagore and Einstein brings geniuses from worlds apart together. 

Pixgood
2. A man climbs up an electric pole to see the last rites of Gandhiji's funeral.

What do I need to know about WWII?

Listed below is a comprised list of What Everyone Should Know About WWII.

When did World War II begin?
According to what is written and known in current history books, World War II began on September 1,1939 when Germany attacked Poland without a formal declaration of war. In support of their mutual defence treaty obligations with Poland, France and Great Britain issued ultimatums to Hitler for the immediate withdrawal of German forces from Poland. When the deadlines expired, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 2, 1939. Germany had Italy and Japan on its side, and were known as the Axis powers.

Why is December 7, 1941 considered a decisive date in World War II?
Pearl Harbor, on the island of O'ahu, Hawaii, was attacked by the Japanese Imperial Navy, on December 7, 1941. The surprise attack was masterminded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. On December 8, 1941 the United States -- until then neutral in World War II -- formally declared that a state of war existed between the United States and the Japanese empire. Some historians believe the United States presence helped changed the Allies' (as the forces fighting the German, Italian and Japanese armies were known) fortunes.